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NeuroResearch Clinics, Inc.

  AMA Category 1
  Continuing Medical Education

Coast of Maine photo by Marty Hinz, MD

 
The neurotransmitter approach used in over 900 medical clinics
Contact us or find a caregiver using this approach.
 
NEUROTRANSMITTER DISEASES
(Serotonin, Dopamine, Norepinephrine, Epinephrine)
Written by: Marty Hinz, MD
President Clinical Research
NeuroResearch Clinics, Inc.
neurotransmitter
The Diseases
 
2008 NeuroResearch Clinics
Case Study Essay Contest Winner
By: Clifford Passen, MD Saratoga, New York
The Story of Anna
click here
 
The Diseases
NT Associations

  The number of diseases such as depression, ADHD, etc. relating to serotonin, dopamine, epinephrine, and norepinephrine, are huge. Add to this the autocrine, regulatory, neurohormone, and paracrine functions controlled by the serotonin and dopamine neurotransmitter molecules and there is virtually no function in the body not affected by the serotonin and dopamine neurotransmitter molecules. At the left is a link to common disease of the brain such as depression, ADHD, etc. that caused by or associated with serotonin and dopamine neurotransmitter levels and a link showing which of the serotonin, dopamine, norepinephrine, and epinephrine neurotransmitter molecules are primarily implicated in some selected diseases such as depression, ADHD, etc.

DEPRESSION

  The treatment protocols for depression, ADHD, etc. developed by NeuroResearch Clinics, Inc. involves the use of 5-HTP aka 5-HTP or 5 HTP, tyrosine aka L-tyrosine and L-dopa aka dopa with urinary serotonin and dopamine neurotransmitter testing. 5-HTP aka 5-HTP or 5 HTP, tyrosine aka L-tyrosine, and L-dopa aka dopa freely cross into the brain then are synthesized into serotonin and dopamine neurotransmitter molecules by the brain. Giving 5-HTP aka 5-HTP or 5 HTP, tyrosine aka L-tyrosine, and L-dopa aka dopa is the only way to increase brain levels of serotonin and dopamine to levels needed for symptoms of disease such as depression, ADHD, etc. to be under control.

  With the depression, ADHD, etc. protocol for adults start at level 1 dosing of 5-HTP aka 5-HTP or 5 HTP and tyrosine aka L-tyrosine then in one week if relief of symptoms are not obtained the dosing is increased to level 2 dosing of 5-HTP aka 5-HTP or 5 HTP and tyrosine aka L-tyrosine. If no relief of symptoms is seen in one week on level 2 dosing the 5-HTP aka 5-HTP or 5 HTP and tyrosine aka L-tyrosine is increased to level 3 dosing. At this point approximately 80% of patients with depression will find relief of symptoms.

  If there is no relief of symptoms on level 3 5-HTP aka 5-HTP or 5 HTP and tyrosine aka L-tyrosine dosing urinary serotonin and dopamine neurotransmitter testing is ordered and the consultant recommendations are followed until the patient achieves complete relief of symptoms or both the serotonin and dopamine are in the serotonin and dopamine phase 3 therapeutic range. 

  Once serotonin and dopamine are in the phase 3 therapeutic range if no relief of symptoms of depression is seen 100% of patients not responding to 5-HTP aka 5-HTP or 5 HTP, tyrosine aka L-tyrosine, and L-dopa aka dopa are actually suffering from depressive bipolar disorder. These are depression patients who have not been previously diagnosed with bipolar depression. The recommendation at that point is to continue the 5-HTP aka 5-HTP or 5 HTP, tyrosine aka L-tyrosine, and L-dopa aka dopa and start a bipolar drug such as lithium 300 mg twice day, Depakote 500 mg twice a day or Lamictil 50 mg a day. After one week on the bipolar drug you now have 100% relief in  patients with depression. On the link to the right titled, "depression chapter" is a depression chapter written for the new medical text book editor Ingrid Kohlstadt, MD of Johns Hopkins outlining in detail this approach in treating depression with 5-HTP aka 5-HTP or 5 HTP, tyrosine aka L-tyrosine, L-dopa aka dopa, and urinary serotonin and dopamine neurotransmitter testing.

Depression Chapter
Depression Standard
Depression
Depression Thoughts
Bipolar Depression
Depression Case 1
Depression Case 2
Depression Case 3
Depression UTube 1
Depression UTube 2
ADHD
ADHD
ADHD Drugs
ADHD Case 1
ADHD Case 2
ADHD Case 3
ADHD Case 4
ADHD YouTube 1
ADHD YouTube 2
ADHD YouTube 3
ADHD YouTube 4

 NeuroResearch Clinics, Inc. has been studying ADHD for several years. In 2006 we started a formal pilot study with an independent clinic in Dallas Texas to verify ADHD results. The findings of the ADHD pilot study were that 100% of children with ADHD who took their pills properly achieved relief of symptoms in treatment of ADHD. Based on this study we entered into agreement with the University of North Texas at Denton to perform a double blind placebo controlled study of ADHD. This ADHD study by the University of North Texas is detailed on a separate web page on this web site. To access the ADHD web page go to the top left of this web page and click on the ADHD study link.

  If you have a child with ADHD you do not have to wait for the University of North Texas ADHD to finish. The ADHD treatment developed by NeuroResearch is available now. Contact NeuroResearch Clinics on the blue colored link at the top middle of this page and we can help you find an ADHD caregiver using the approach developed by NeuroResearch Clinics, Inc. to treat ADHD.

DEMENTIA

  Real treatment for dementia is something that has eluded medicine. Using 5-HTP aka 5-HTP or 5 HTP, tyrosine aka L-tyrosine, and L-dopa aka dopa in patients with dementia or patients who have been diagnosed with dementia or Alzheimer's Disease is showing profound promise. Dementia appears to be a multi-factorial / multi-etiology disease where serotonin and dopamine may or may not be the driving cause. In cases where serotonin and dopamine is the driving cause results are profound. The case studies to the right submitted by care givers documents results of treatment. Of interest with dementia patients is the fact that these patients need to have someone around to insure they are taking their pills properly. If they miss taking their 5-HTP aka 5-HTP or 5 HTP, tyrosine aka L-tyrosine, and L-dopa aka dopa very quickly they relapse and all the confusion of dementia returns.

Dementia Case 1
Dementia Case 2
Dementia Case 3
OBESITY
Obesity Case 1
Obesity Case 2
Obesity YouTube

  Results in treatment of obesity with 5-HTP aka 5-HTP or 5 HTP, tyrosine aka L-tyrosine, and L-dopa aka dopa with urinary serotonin and dopamine neurotransmitter testing show that average weight loss the first month is 16.9 pounds. At the heart of the NeuroResearch Clinics treatment approach is our computer program written in 1995. This computer program is provided to clinics free of charge. The computer programs answers the question, "Is the patient on track to make goal weight or to adjustments have to be made?" The sooner it is realized that the patient is not on track to make goal weight and adjustments are made optimization of results is facilitated. This computer program is hooked up to a huge data base. Data in the data base goes back to 1995 and represents almost 1.5 million patient-years of medical weight loss data from over 600 clinics. This data has been an invaluable tool used in NeuroResearch Clinic's research of obesity. It is the largest weight loss data base in the world, bar none.

  Installation of a weight management program into a clinic is a lot of work and not all clinics who use the NeuroResearch approach have weight programs. If you are interested in finding a clinic with a NeuroResearch weight loss program please contact us.

PARKINSON DISEASE

  In working with 5-HTP aka 5-HTP or 5 HTP, tyrosine aka L-tyrosine, and L-dopa aka dopa then looking at Parkinson's disease, where the standard approach in medicine is to use L-dopa aka dopa from the start of treatment, it was realized that virtually all the problems encountered in the treatment of Parkinson disease patients were caused by improper use of 5-HTP aka 5-HTP or 5 HTP, tyrosine aka L-tyrosine, and L-dopa aka dopa. If you do not give proper levels of 5-HTP aka 5-HTP or 5 HTP the serotonin precursor with L-dopa aka dopa serotonin is depleted at which point the L-dopa aka dopa may quit working and a host of serotonin deficiency diseases develop such as depression, ADHD, etc. If you do not give adequate levels of cysteine L-dopa aka dopa depletes the sulfur amino acids. Carbidopa commonly used with L-dopa aka dopa depletes both serotonin and dopamine peripherally outside of the brain. To the right are links to in-depth writings about Parkinson Disease management and how to use L-dopa aka dopa properly without getting into the problems that plague treatment of Parkinson patients currently in medicine.

Parkinson Disease
Parkinson in Depth
MULTIPLE DISEASE PATIENTS
Depression, Fibromyalgia, Restless Leg Syndrome
Case Study
 
 
Obesity, Depression, Obsessive Compulsive Disorder
Case Study

  A number of serotonin and dopamine related neurotransmitter diseases such as depression, ADHD, etc. are listed on the link at the top of this page. Over 90% of patients suffering with one of these diseases such as depression, ADHD, etc. have 3 or more diseases present at the same time. The starting point for treatment of each of these diseases such as depression, ADHD, etc. under NeuroResearch protocols is always the same since the cause is the same, serotonin and dopamine levels that are not high enough to prevent disease such as depression, ADHD, etc. symptoms. To the left are two cases studies in patients with multiple diseases such as depression, ADHD, etc. In the top case study fibromyalgia is one of the diseases. While fibromyalgia is not specifically discussed on this web page it is noted that we have seen 100% relief of fibromylagia symptoms under the NeuroResearch protocols.

ANTI-AGING

  Anti-aging would seem to go hand in hand with the dementia discussion above. Intriguing here, as discussed on the link to the right is the fact the urinary serotonin and dopamine neurotransmitter testing has been shown to be a predictor of cognitive decline, functional decline, and mortality. The serotonin and dopamine testing result problems seen leading to these conclusions are easily corrected with the approach of NeuroResearch Clinics. What we don't know is if correcting the urinary serotonin and dopamine neurotransmitter problems seen on the labs and proven as a predictor will lead to preservation of cognitive function, general function, and decreased mortality. But from everything known it would appear that this is possible.

Anti-Aging
ALL THE OTHER DISEASES
Tourett's Syndrome
Tricotillomania
Insomnia / Anxiety
Insomnia
Migraine Headache
Chronic Pain
OCD

  On the left are more case studies submitted by care givers attesting to the effectiveness of the serotonin and dopamine approach of NeuroResearch Clinics. A problem seen is that care givers and patients seem to want to put each disease such as depression, ADHD, etc. in a neat and separate box to be treated individually when the real cause is the same, serotonin and dopamine neurotransmitter levels that are not high enough to prevent disease such as depression, ADHD, etc.

  Serotonin and dopamine neurotransmitter levels have a role directly or indirectly in virtually every function in the body. There is constant surprise at NeuroResearch Clinics with reports from clinics regarding treatment of disease such as depression, ADHD, etc. that might not be expected to respond to other approaches. The bottom line recommendation to clinics is, "If it appears that the disease such as depression, ADHD, etc. might have a serotonin or dopamine component a trial of 5-HTP aka 5-HTP or 5 HTP, tyrosine aka L-tyrosine, and L-dopa aka dopa is indicated.

MULTI-FACTORIAL / MULTI-ETIOLOGY

  Some diseases such as dementia may have multiple causes (multi-etiology) and have multiple contributing factors. While other disease such as depression and fibromyalgia are 100% caused by dysfunction of serotonin and dopamine control. In the multi-factorial / multi-etiology diseases if the dominating component is serotonin and dopamine amazing results will be seen. An empirical trial for 6 to 8 weeks following the NeuroResearch protocol will sort out the multi-etiology / multi-factorial patients that have serotonin and dopamine as the driving force behind their disease.

Etiology/Factorial 1
Etiology/Factorial 2
     
 
 
 
DISEASE OVERVIEW
By: Marty Hinz, MD
President Clinical Research
NeuroResearch Clinics, Inc.

 

  The research of NeuroResearch Clinics is based on some of the largest privately held medical serotonin and dopamine neurotransmitter data bases in the world. Our largest serotonin an dopamine neurotransmitter data base was started in 1995 and has over 1.4 million patient-days of treatment documented. Our laboratory serotonin and dopamine data base was described by the Chairman of the University of Minnesota Duluth Medical School Research Committee as "by far the largest research data base" he had worked with. Statistical analysis of data drives the NeuroResearch goal of improved group outcomes in treatment with 5-HTP aka 5-HTP or 5 HTP, tyrosine aka L-tyrosine, and L-dopa aka dopa and urinary serotonin and dopamine neurotransmitter testing.

  The NeuroResearch Clinics approach has been developed since 1997. As of 2008 it is currently in use by over 900 medical clinics in the U.S.A. Canada, and Europe. While in the United States the ingredients can be bought over the counter by the general public achieving proper results requires training hence results by the public in using these ingredient are low. NeuroResearch Clinics, Inc. provides this serotonin and dopamine training through AMA category 1 continuing medical education for physicians. If a doctor or a patient simply tries this serotonin and dopamine neurotransmitter approach without training it will not lead to optimal results, training is required. On this page are a few of the tens of thousands of documented results using this approach. Almost daily we hear from physicians who have achieved what at times sounds be almost unbelievable results in addressing serotonin and dopamine neurotransmitter levels. NeuroResearch gets so many of these calls that the unbelievable is almost routine now.

  Many of the patients treated by physicians with this approach are some of the most difficult serotonin and dopamine neurotransmitter cases in medicine. These are the patients that have had no success with numerous drugs and numerous physicians and now have hope. Many have had no response to treatment with urinary serotonin and dopamine neurotransmitter approached promoted by other companies.

  On the cutting edge of treatment is dementia in the elderly. ADHD in children has shown stunning results in a large number of patients. We have targeted these areas for formal studies. At present the University of North Texas is performing a double blind placebo controlled cross over study involving 200 children with ADHD from 12 school districts. The pilot study for this formal study showed that 82% of children achieved relief of symptoms. Of the 18% that did not achieve relief of symptoms they fit into two groups. The first group was children that refused to take their pills and the second group was parents that did not give the pills properly. As of fall 2008 there are five independent scientific writings efforts under way by Universities and medical journals on various aspects of NeuroResearch findings. Among formal studies targeted in the future is treatment of depression where 100% relief of symptoms has be documented to date.

anna
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The Story of Anna: Clifford Passen, MD
 
  I first met Anna in January, 2004, when she was 9 years old. Her adoptive parents had brought her to me, a child and adolescent psychiatrist, following her second discharge from a psychiatric hospital.  The two psychiatric admissions had followed Anna expressing both suicidal thoughts towards herself and homicidal thoughts towards her parents. She was becoming increasingly aggressive and assaultive, and demonstrated increased mood lability and poor impulse control. She had hit and pushed her parents and had kicked her adoptive father in the groin.  She had punched her adoptive mother in the head while Anna's mother was driving a car. By the time I first met Anna she had already received a number of psychiatric diagnoses including Mood Disorder NOS, Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder, and Bipolar Disorder.  She had many unresolved issues regarding her adoption. She had received trials of Paxil, Topamax, Zyprexa ,Abilify, lithium, Geodon,
  Depakote, and Risperdal. Due to these medications, Anna had gained 57 pounds  between March, 2003, and January, 2004. None of these medication trials had been effective, and Anna continued to have what her mother described as "anger explosions".  Her father feared for his wife's safety.  Anna was punching, kicking, biting, head-butting, and threatening her parents with knives.  Although a good student, she could not maintain friendships and never received invitations for play dates. At times she could be a "bottomless pit" of need for reassurance and support. At other times the police had been called to the home due to Anna's dangerous behavior.
  I initially continued Anna's psychiatric treatment, titrating medications, and trying new medications and combinations of medications in an effort to try and get Anna's behavior under control.   Although the medications were of some benefit, Anna continued to have severe behavioral problems. She was placed in temporary respite care at times.  She was asked to leave a summer camp after five days for threatening to kill the other campers. Her  adoptive parents, exhausted in trying to care for Anna, considered residential care for her. Family court services were implemented.
  Finally, in June, 2006, Anna's mother told me, "We have to try something."  I had recently begun using the NeuroResearch system, and began Anna on the pediatric dosing of 5-HTP aka 5-HTP or 5 HTP, tyrosine aka L-tyrosine, and L-dopa aka dopa in August, 2006. The results were nothing short of remarkable.  Within one month, Anna's behavior was clearly better. She had done well at camp and was doing well at school.  The angry outbursts  in the family calmed down. By December, 2006, Anna no longer required psychotherapy.  For the first time in memory, the family enjoyed a happy Christmas. In April, 2007, I discontinued her last prescription medication, Wellbutrin.
  Anna's dosing of 5-HTP aka 5-HTP or 5 HTP, tyrosine aka L-tyrosine, and L-dopa aka dopa has never gotten past the two-week protocol. She continues to do better and better, much to the relief of her parents, herself, and me!  She is now 14 years old, and is developing into a competent and successful teenager.  She has friends and is happy. This is what NeuroResearch supplements did for Anna and her parents.
 

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serotonin

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A Listing of Serotonin, Dopamine and Norepinephrine Neurotransmitter Diseases such as depression, ADHD, etc. With Commentary.

   
 

Serotonin, Dopamine and Norepinephrine Neurotransmitter Levels That Are Not High Enough Cause Disease Such as Depression, ADHD. Etc.

 

By: Marty Hinz, MD

 

President Clinical Research

 

NeuroResearch Clinics, Inc.

 

  Chronic disease such as depression, ADHD, etc. related to serotonin, dopamine and norepinephrine neurotransmitter levels is caused by damage to the serotonin, dopamine and norepinephrine neurons in the brain. The leading cause of serotonin, dopamine and norepinephrine neuron damage is from neurotoxins in the environment. The only way to address symptoms of these diseases such as depression, ADHD, etc., without use of serotonin, dopamine or norepinephrine drugs which can deplete serotonin, dopamine and norepinephrine neurotransmitter levels, is giving the body proper levels of the nutrients 5-HTP aka 5-HTP or 5 HTP, tyrosine aka L-tyrosine, and L-dopa aka dopa (with vitamins, and minerals) needed by the body to establish serotonin, dopamine and norepinephrine neurotransmitter levels higher than is normally found in the body from diet alone.

    The master monoamine neurotransmitter class includes serotonin, dopamine, norepinephrine, and epinephrine. Virtually all the other neurotransmitter molecules in the body are controlled directly or indirectly by these four neurotransmitter molecule groups.
    In reviewing and analyzing tens of thousands of serotonin, dopamine and norepinephrine neurotransmitter tests from patients it is apparent that the cause the chronic diseases such as depression, ADHD, etc. listed below is not low levels of serotonin, dopamine and norepinephrine neurotransmitter molecules. The cause of chronic disease such as depression, ADHD, etc. is serotonin, dopamine and norepinephrine neurotransmitter levels that are not high enough to compensate of the serotonin, dopamine and norepinephrine neuron damage in the brain. The fact is that virtually all patients with and without disease such as depression, ADHD, etc. have identical serotonin, dopamine and norepinephrine neurotransmitter levels at the start of treatment. We have seen no consistent pattern of "low levels of serotonin, dopamine and norepinephrine neurotransmitter molecules causing disease" such as depression, ADHD, etc., i.e. there is no such thing. This is a fine point. It is not low levels of serotonin, dopamine and norepinephrine neurotransmitter molecules that cause chronic disease such as depression, ADHD, etc. it is serotonin, dopamine and norepinephrine neurotransmitter levels that are not high enough to compensate for disease such as depression, ADHD, etc. symptoms due to brain damage that is the real problem.
   
 

THE SEROTONIN, DOPAMINE, AND NOREPINEPHRINE NEUROTRANSMITTER DISEASES SUCH AS DEPRESSION, ADHD, ETC.

 

 

 
SEROTONIN, DOPAMINE AND NOREPINEPHRINE NEUROTRANSMITTER LEVELS THAT ARE NO HIGH ENOUGH CAUSE THE FOLLOWING DISEASE
 
       

 
   

   
 
OBESITY
leads to disease listed in the left two columns
 
       
 

 

   
 

Type II Diabetes

Other Diseases

 

-Decreased Life Expectancy

-Diabetes

-Heart Disease

-Increase in Stroke

-Sleep Apnea

-Knee Problems

-Back Problems

-Increased Rehabilitation Time

-Increased Rate of Injuries

-Increase in Gall Stones

-Female Fertility Problems

-Gynecologic Irregularities

-Gouty Arthritis

-Increased Lung Infections

-Increase in Gastric Ulcers

-Chronic Pain

-Hiatal Hernia
-Fibromyalgia
-Myoclonus  

-High Blood Pressure

-High Cholesterol

INCREASE CANCER RISK

-Increased Colon Cancer

-Increased Uterian Cancer

-Increased Breast Cancer

 
 
NeuroResearch Logo
AMA continuing medical education
for physicians
 

-Decreased Life Expectancy

-Increased Infections

-Diabetic Neuropathy

-Kidney Failure

-Macular Degeneration (blind)

-Heart Diseases

-Foot Ulcers

-Vascular Disease

-Therapeutic Amputations

-Disability

-Increase in Stroke

-Impotence

HIGH BLOOD PRESSURE

AND

HIGH CHOLESTEROL

-Decreased Life      Expectancy

-Heart Disease

-Stroke

-Kidney Failure

-Vascular Disease

-Ischemia

 
 

 

 

Most patients have more than one disease such as depression, ADHD, etc. active at any time.

 

 
 
 

The incidence of these diseases such as depression, ADHD, etc. increases after exposure to drugs that deplete serotonin, dopamine and norepinephrine neurotransmitter levels.

 
 

-Parkinsonism

-Obesity

-Bulimia

-Anorexia

-Depression

-Anxiety

-Panic Attacks

-Migraine Headaches

-Tension Headaches

-Premenstrual Syndrome (PMS)

-Menopausal Symptoms

-Obsessive Compulsive Disorder (OCD)

-compulsivity

-Insomnia

-Impulsivity

-Obessionality

-Inappropriate Aggression

-Inappropriate Anger

-Psychotic Illness

-Fibromyalgia

-Chronic fatigue syndrome

-Adrenal fatigue/burnout

-Hyperactivity

-ADHD/ADD

-Hormone dysfunction

-Adrenal dysfunction

-Dementia

-Alzheimer's disease

-Traumatic Brain Injury

-Phobias

-Chronic Pain

-Nocturnal Myoclonus

-Irritable Bowel Syndrome

-Chrone’s Disease

-Ulcerative Colitis

-Cognitive Deterioration

-Functional Deterioration

-Increased mortality rate

-Organ System Dysfunction

-Chronic Stress

-Cortisol Dysfunction

-Hormone Dysfunction

-Restless Leg Syndrome

         

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5-HTP aka 5-HTP or 5 HTP
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LINKING NEUROTRANSMITTER LEVELS TO DISEASES such as depression, ADHD, etc.

 

The monoamine neurotransmitter associated with each disease

 
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depression_1
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MANAGEMENT OF DEPRESSION WHEN REUPTAKE INHIBITOR DEPRESSION / ADHD DRUGS DO NOT FUNCTION OPTIMALLY

 

PERSPECTIVE

  In the traditional medical practice, treatment of depression, ADHD, etc. revolves around the use of depression medications. Reuptake inhibitor depression / ADHD drugs are the most frequently used. While 5-HTP aka 5-HTP or 5 HTP, tyrosine aka L-tyrosine, and L-dopa aka dopa are effective for treating depression, ADHD, etc. many patients can’t afford them since they are not covered by insurance, which leaves prescription depression drugs as the only option for treating depression, ADHD, etc.

  When treating depression with reuptake inhibitor depression / ADHD drugs, the most prominent problems encountered are:

Ø      Side effects of the depression drug

Ø      The depression and ADHD drugs do not work from the start of treatment.
Ø      The depression and ADHD drugs become ineffective during treatment.

  The most common cause for referrals to a specialist for depression occurs when patients are not responding to reuptake inhibitor depression / ADHD therapy. The purpose of this writing is to discuss the additional tools that physicians can use in order to increase the effectiveness of reuptake inhibitor depression / ADHD therapy and decrease the rate of outside referrals.

  When prescription depression drugs do not work in the patient with depression at the start of treatment, it is possible that the patient may not be suffering from standard depression; they may be suffering from bipolar depression. Guidelines and management of bipolar depression as well as depression, ADHD, etc. are covered below.

 

KEEPING YOUR PATIENT’S CARE IN YOUR PRACTICE

    When patients taking reuptake inhibitor depression / ADHD drugs are stabilized, there is no need for an outside referral. An effective way of ensuring that reuptake inhibitor depression / ADHD drugs function optimally is discussed in this writing. If the patient’s primary clinic is able to treat the depression, this preserves the continuity of care between the physician and the patient suffering from depression.

 

REUPTAKE INHIBITOR DEPRESSION / ADHD DRUGS DEPLETE NEUROTRANSMITTER LEVELS

  Depression drugs that work with serotonin and dopamine neurotransmitter molecules do not work if there are not enough neurotransmitter molecules in the system.